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INVESTIGATION INTO IDENTIFICATION OF FAULTS IN A SMALL HSDI DIESEL ENGINE USING ACOUSTICEMISSIONA. K. Frances1, J. D. Gill1, R. L. Reuben2, J. A. Steel2 1Imes Ltd, Aberdeen, UK 2Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK ABSTRACT In this study a method of identifying faults in a small four cylinder, four stroke, normally aspirated HSDI diesel engine, type Lister-Petter 4X90, using acoustic emission (AE) was investigated. The study was confined to injector faults and leakage of the exhaust manifold gasket although the findings could, in principle, be applied to other types of fluid-mechanical malfunction. Simultaneous measurements of AE, cylinder no. 1 pressure and needle lift, crankshaft speed and torque were acquired for a range of speeds and loads. Using features extracted from the raw AE signal, wavelet transformation and statistical techniques it has been shown, that AE can identify these faults over a range of engine operating conditions. The advantage of using AE over more traditional methods is that the non-intrusive nature of the sensors can result in reduced set up times and therefore cost. 1.0 INTRODUCTION Engine condition can have a significant effect on combustion quality in a diesel engine which in turn can compromise engine performance. As a result there have been many studies on optimisation of the combustion process and investigation of fault mechanisms influencing the quality of combustion. AE has been used to identify changes in engine condition as it shows highly repeatable signatures which can be attributed to mechanical and fluid-mechanical events taking place during the engine cycle [1] [2]. In particular, leakage of gas through the exhaust valve of diesel engines has been shown to be detectable as has the leakage of a cylinder head gasket. Also, Gu et al [3] state that the injector is subject to vibrations and stress waves caused by a combination of mechanical and fluid-mechanical events which are phenomena AE is suited to detecting. There are four distinct stages in the process of diesel combustion; fuel injection, ignition delay, premixed phase and diffusion phase. Fuel is pumped from the fuel pump to the injector and once a certain fuel pressure is reached in the injector, known as the discharge pressure, the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. For this size of engine, the chamber contains an amount of turbulent air which is compressed to a high pressure and temperature. The injected fuel does not ignite instantaneously; rather it vaporizes and mixes with the air to produce a mixture that spontaneously ignites. The time between fuel injection and ignition is known as the ignition delay. Ignition will then continue in regions where the air/ fuel ratio is closest to stoichiometric conditions as more fuel is introduced to the chamber. Combustion is rapid due to the quantity of air/ fuel mixture formed during the delay process which in turn increases the temperature and pressure still further in an uncontrolled fashion. This is termed the premixed phase. Once this has 311 DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 transpired combustion slows down and is controlled by the quantity of fuel entering the chamber and air still present to form the necessary air/ fuel mixture and this is known as the diffusion or mixing-controlled phase. The timing of the fuel delivery, quantity of fuel delivered and amount of air present are extremely important in attaining the optimum stoichiometric conditions and therefore performance of the combustion process [4]. To investigate the ability of AE to monitor the quality of combustion, a number of tests have been performed over a range of loads and speeds, varying the injector pressure to simulate an injector fault. By varying the injector pressure the timing of fuel delivery is altered as well as quantity of fuel delivered. Diesel faults displaying these characteristics include wear between injector spring and needle, faulty fuel pump, wear in camshaft or timing gear faults. In addition, an experiment where a leak was introduced to the exhaust manifold gasket was included as a type of gas leakage fault which has not been reported elsewhere. 2.0 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE Tests were performed on a four-cylinder, four-stroke, normally aspirated, HSDI diesel engine, type Lister-Petter 4X90 directly coupled to an instrumented dynamometer. The 4X90 runs at speeds from 1000rpm to 3000rpm and gives a power output of between 19kW to 33kW depending on load and speed. The 4X90 is fitted with a rotary type fuel injection pump, Delphi injector, type 904-21066 with an injector discharge pressure of 240bar for normal running and an injection advance system. Two Vallen VS900M wideband sensors (95kHz to 1MHz) with two Vallen AEP3 preamplifiers performing analogue bandpass filtering (95kHz to 1MHz) and amplification of +49dB were used to measure the AE. Signals were acquired at 2.5MHz to avoid aliasing using a National Instruments PXI-6115 card with 12-bit resolution. In addition to raw AE signals, cylinder 1 pressure, needle lift and shaft encoder signals were acquired with the pressure and needle lift sampled at 50kHz. A total of 20 engine cycles were acquired for all tests. The raw AE signals were normalised by amending any mean offset and adjusting the signal magnitudes using equation 1 to avoid differences introduced through variations in the efficiency of sensor coupling between tests. 10 ( ) norm i ()x x x x = - (1) Where xnorm is the normalised signal, xmax is the maximum value from the acquired AE signal, xi is the raw AE signal and x is the raw AE signal mean. The signals were then transformed, using the shaft encoder signal, from the time domain to the crankshaft angle domain for ease of identification of engine cycle events. 2.1 INJECTOR FAULT For normal running the injector discharge pressure is set at 240bar. To simulate an injector fault such as spring fatigue the injector pressure for cylinder no. 1 was altered by inserting shims underneath the pressure spring. Fault injector discharge pressures were set at 225bar, 195bar and 150bar. By lowering the discharge pressure, fuel is delivered earlier to the combustion chamber, and continues for longer with increased droplet size. Therefore, the time taken for the fuel to reach a suitable state for combustion is increased and occurs at a time uncorrelated to ideal cylinder pressure and temperature resulting in 312 max DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 uncontrolled burning. This can give rise to incomplete combustion resulting in increased particle and exhaust emissions, loss of power and excessive fuel consumption. Figure 1 shows the test engine and sensor position on the engine head near cylinder no. 1 used for the injector fault tests. Test
number Injector
discharge
pressure (bar) Speed
(rpm) Load
(Nm) (%) Test
number Injector
discharge
pressure (bar) Speed
(rpm) Load
(Nm) (%) Table 1 Details of tests for injector fault. 313 DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 For each cycle the signal was windowed around the combustion event for cylinder no. 1 which corresponds to 340° to 460° rotation of the crankshaft. Features extracted from this window included the energy in the signal calculated using equation 2, 1 2( ) i N i E T x iT = ∑= = (2) where E is the signal energy content, T is the sampling interval, N is the total number of samples, i is the integer sample number and x is the discrete signal value. The ignition starting time was identified by performing a wavelet analysis on the windowed AE signal. Wavelet analysis was selected as at high speeds and low loads the AE signal appears noisy and a simple time domain thresholding method was found to be unsuitable to identify the start time under all conditions. Wavelet analysis transforms a time domain signal to a time-frequency domain by dilation (or altering the scale) of the mother wavelet and calculating coefficients based on how accurately the dilated wavelet approximates the signal. This procedure continues by shifting the wavelet to the next section of signal. A continuous wavelet transform technique was used with a Haar mother wavelet to identify the location in the signal where the largest coefficient value occurred at each discrete wavelet scale. The Haar wavelet was chosen as it is discontinuous and similar to a step function thereby readily identifying sudden changes in frequency. Figure 2 shows a typical windowed raw AE signal from cylinder no. 1, along with the wavelet transform of the signal with injector needle lift and cylinder pressure shown superimposed on both. Figure 2(a) y-axis has an arbitrary scale associated with the normalised voltage of the AE signal, and Figure 2(b) has a y-axis scale which represents the frequency with high scale values representing low frequencies and the intensity (brightness of shading) indicates the magnitude of the coefficients calculated for the various scales at specified times with high values showing a good approximation of the signal. The x-axis for both figures is the crankshaft angle of rotation. 314 DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 The ignition event is thought to generate a high magnitude AE event [5] as well as a wideband AE pulse [1] which, in wavelet terms, generally gives the largest coefficient at all scale values, see Figure 2(b). A scale of 1 to 48 was employed in the wavelet analysis with the location of the largest coefficient recorded resulting in a 48 point vector. The median value of this vector was taken to be the starting location of the ignition for the cycle. Other AE features extracted included maximum AE amplitude, location (angle) of maximum amplitude and standard deviation over the window. Cylinder 1, injector needle lift start and end locations were calculated using a simple time domain thresholding technique as were the maximum cylinder pressure value and location. For each windowed record (20 in total), features extracted included needle lift start and end location, peak pressure value and location, AE signal energy, AE peak start location, AE maximum amplitude and location and AE standard deviation resulting in a 20×9 feature matrix for each test. Therefore a total of 36 feature matrices were calculated for each injector pressure over a range of speeds and loads. Correlation analysis was performed on all parameters to measure the strength of the relationship between the parameter and the injector pressure (240bar, 225bar, 195bar and 150bar) in each test. 2.2 EXHAUST MANIFOLD GASKET LEAK FAULT To simulate burn-through in the exhaust manifold gasket a quantity of gasket material was removed near the exhaust ports of cylinders nos. 1 and 2 creating a leak in the exhaust manifold. Figure 3 shows the location of the manifold and fault on the engine along with the sensor positions on the engine block near cylinders nos. 1 and 2 as well as the actual gasket used to simulate a fault. 315 DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 Records were acquired from the engine in normal running condition and with the gasket leak for engine speeds of 1000rpm, 2000rpm and 3000rpm with loads of 0%, 50% and 100%. Figure 5 in Section 3.2 gives details of all tests conducted. The raw AE signals were windowed around the approximate location in the cycle where cylinder no. 1 exhaust valve opens, between 460° and 510°. Figure 4 shows a typical cycle acquired for a normal and fault condition with the circle highlighting the principal difference in signatures within the window. Figure 4 Typical AE signals for normal running and with exhaust gasket leak. 316 DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 The four main peaks relate to the combustion in cylinder nos. 4, 2, 1 and 3 respectively which match the findings of Gill et al [3]. From Figure 4 it can be observed that there is a higher magnitude signal for the fault condition in the window (highlighted by the circle) which is typically present in all cycles. AE signal energy was calculated for the windowed section of the signals using equation (2). It is also possible to observe differences in the two signatures corresponding to other cylinders exhaust valve opening event. As mentioned previously, a thresholding technique was unsuitable for a signif number of tests to identify in the time domain the location of ignition within the cycle. A similar method using thresholding in the wavelet domain was found also to be weak for certain tests and the method described in section 2.1 was found to give the most reliable results and more robust than the previous two methods. For high speeds with low or moderate loads, however, the values generated were inconsistent with the rest of the findings and so were not used in the correlation analysis. Under normal running condition (injector discharge pres the cylinder is "clean" meaning that there are a number of ignition points in the cylinder where "ideal" conditions are present for combustion. This presents difficulties for accurately identifying ignition as there are a number of smaller combustion events or combustion pulses generating an AE signal with many wideband AE events. When the injector pressure is reduced, however, it becomes increasingly simple to identify the start of ignition as the fuel is injected before ideal temperatures and pressures have been achieved, and so there is a greater quantity of mixed fuel and air which ignites spontaneously generating a principal combustion pulse. This problem is exacerbated at higher running speeds as there is less time for ideal combustion conditions to be met. Correlation analysis was performed on all parameters for each test with the independ variable being the injector pressure. Table 1 shows the correlation coefficient magnitude calculated for each parameter within a test. Spee oad AE Energy AE AE AE M C r 3.1 INJECTOR FAULT EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS & DISCUSSION icant sure of 240bar) combustion in ent Test Correlation Coefficient, r d L ax AE Max Max P Needle Needle 1000 0 -0.54 -0.56 -0.17 -0.65 -0.6 -0 correlation. 317 DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 As expected there is a very strong correlation between maximum cylinder pressure and ble 1 for AE parameters: injector fault over all tests as cylinder pressure is a direct consequence of the combustion event. The same is true to a lesser extent for the needle lift start and end values. The strength of the correlation can be investigated further by taking into account the sample size. It may be that due to the sample size, the coefficient of correlation is 0 for some tests. Using the Student's t distribution for the 0.05 level of significance (i.e. that the following hypothesis has a 5% probability of error), it can be calculated that certain parameters may be uncorrelated with the fault condition and these have been shaded in the above table. To summarise Ta * AE Energy gives a moderate corr exception of 1000rpm, 100% and 2000rpm 0% and 100% load. An interesting result is that for 2000rpm, 50% load where correlation is strong. AE peak start gives, where calculated, a moderate correlati pressure over all tests. Maximum AE value g correlation with injector pressure over most tests. AE max location gives moderate correlation for th * AE standard deviation also gives a moderate correlation to injector most tests. provides an indication of the fault and so it might be concluded that some combination of parameters will provide reliable diagnosis over the operating range considered. It is interesting to note that for most AE parameters the weakest correlation is generally for tests at 1000rpm, 100% load and 2000rpm, 0% and 100% load. It is unclear why this is, although it must be acknowledged that other consequences of poor running at high or low load may generate "stray" AE from another source within the engine. Of the direct parameters, the position of the maximum pressure i feature although the others generally produce reliable diagnosis. The weaker correlation of AE parameters with other parameters such as cylinder pressure and needle lift may be due to the complex and varying nature of the combustion process. Although one might expect, for example, the AE peak start time and the needle lift start to be measuring the same process. AE resulting from injection and combustion is generated by pressure pulses impacting material and propagating through the material. It may be that AE is sensitive to the small variations from cycle to cycle and engine operating condition therefore a more robust signal processing method needs to be devised to overcome this difficulty. Additionally, a study into the sources of AE generation during the injection and combustion process would provide a valuable insight into the relationship between AE and combustion. Using equation (2) to calculate the AE signal energy in the window for each cycle, 20 total for each test, analysis of variance was used to compare the energy values for the normal running condition and fault condition data sets. Figure (5) shows graphically the 318 elation for most speeds and loads with the * on with injector * enerally gives a weak correlation or indeed may have no * e majority of tests. pressure for On the positive side, there is not a running condition where none of the chosen features range in calculated energy values for both conditions over all tests. 3.2 EXHAUST MANIFOLD GASKET LEAK RESULTS & DISCUSSION in DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 Test number Speed Load (rpm) (Nm) (%) 1(Normal)
2(Fault)
1000
0 0
0 0 1000
Figure 5 ANOVA analysis of windowed energy values for no g ) i the exhaust gasket leak (right). nclusion can be drawn that the two data means are gnificantly different, although the direction of change is not always the same for the si fault condition. From Figure 5 it can be observed that the range in values within the two data sets is similar but the mean values are significantly different. The whiskers in the diagram correspond to outliers in the data with the box edges representing the 25% and 75% quartile values in the data. There is some overlap in values between the two conditions, but, in both data sets the majority of the data does not overlap significantly indicating that an exhaust gasket leak may be detected using AE possibly using an energy threshold method in an appropriate window as well as utilising appropriate statistical methods to avoid false alarms caused by outliers. The range in AE energy values does not correlate with the operating condition of the engine. At higher speeds the gas pulses resulting from the exhaust valve opening reduce and at higher loads the volume of exhaust gas released from the cylinder increases. One variable that was not adequately identified in the test was the influence of the blower used to extract the exhaust gases from the test cell as well as the backpressure in the actual exhaust manifold. These may have an influence on some or all of the tests and could provide some explanation as to the apparently random nature of the changes in AE energy. 4 .0 CONCLUSIONS n that there is a relationship between AE signal energy and pressure over a range of engine operating conditions. Possible In this study it has been show reduction of the injector reasons have been discussed regarding conditions giving rise to strong or weak correlation between these two variables using maximum cylinder pressure as an "ideal" case. A method was considered to identify ignition using AE and wavelet techniques and 319 DGZfP-Proceedings BB 90-CD Lecture 30 EWGAE 2004 this was shown to be accurate for low to moderate speeds. Further studies such as using a quartz window and high speed video equipment to correlate AE with flame front propagation and a greater number of tests would contribute to the understanding of the phenomena generating AE and might lead to improved diagnosis. The investigations into AE signal energy and exhaust manifold gasket leak showed clear changes in the amount of AE generated between normal and fault conditions. Again, is for future further studies possibly varying the position of the gasket leak and using technology such as thermography to verify AE results would increase knowledge in this area. Initial studies using a back-propagation neural network and AE features to identify injector discharge pressure have proved promising and this will form the bas analysis of the data. For both tests, changes, and some correlation, have been found using AE showing that there is a measurable change of state between normal running and fault. This study shows that there is potential to identify and indeed quantify some faults in diesel engines using AE. Further investigation of the results needs to be undertaken as well as other tests to aid understanding or verify sources of AE in diesel engines. 5 [1] El-Ghamry M H, Brown E, Ferguson I G, & Middleton S, "G Engine Using Acoustic Emission Signals", Conference Proceeding COMADEM 1998, pp 235 - 244, 1998. Fog T L, Brown E R, Hansen H S, Madsen H S, Sørenson P, Hansen E R, Steel J A, Reuben R L & Pederson P Diesel Engines", Conference Proceeding COMADEM 1998, pp 269 - 278, 1998. Gu F & Ball AD, "Vibration Based Fault Diagnosis in Diesel Fuel Injection System", Conference Proceedings Institute of Mechanical Engineers, pp 89 - 9 1995. Challen B & Baranescu R, "Diesel Engine Reference Book", 2nd Edition, Butterw [5] Gill J D, Reuben R L, Steel J A, Scaife M W & Asquith J, "A Study of Small HSDI Diesel Engine Fuel Injection Conference Proceeding EWGAE 2000 - 24th European Conference on Acoustic Emission Testing, pp 281 - 286, 2000. 320 .0 REFERENCES Gill J D, Reuben R L, Steel J A, Scaife M aseous Air-Fuel Quality Identification for a Spark Ignition Gas S, "Exhaust Valve Leakage Detection in Large Marine Equipment Faults Using Acoustic Emission", [2] [3] [4] 8, orth-Heinemann, 1999. |
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