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GUIDED WAVE ANIMATION USING SEMI-ANALYTICAL FINITE ELEMENT METHOD T. Hayashi Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya, Japan Abstract: Many experimental and theoretical studies have shown the great potential of guided waves for rapid, nondestructive evaluation of large pipes and bar-like structures. Inspection using guided wave techniques, however, is still not as common as conventional pulse echo testing with bulk waves, because the guided wave technique cannot be easily explained through simple theoretical treatments as can ray tracing. The author has developed a calculation technique for long-range guided wave propagation at 100 or 1000 times the wavelength. The technique uses the Semi-Analytical Finite Element Method (SAFEM) to carry out simulations of guided wave propagation in plates, pipes and all kinds of bar-like structure, requiring a very short calculation time and a small computational memory requirement compared with the ordinary finite element method. This study presents animated calculation results obtained by SAFEM for many kinds of guided wave applications such as dispersive and multimode waves, mode conversion at plate cracks, three-dimensional scattering at pipe defects and wave propagation in rails having many resonance modes. Introduction: When applying vibration to the surface of plates, pipes and elongated structures such as railroad rails and I-beams, acoustic modes are generated and propagate over distances on the order of 100 or 1000 times the vibration signal wavelength in the longitudinal direction. This acoustic wave, called a guided wave, has attracted attention recently as a means for rapid, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of large structures. Especially, guided waves are greatly expected to be applied as a rapid NDE technique for inspecting buried and/or coated pipes because of their ability, which has been experimentally verified, to travel up to approximately 100 meters [1-6]. However, because guided waves are resonant with very complex characters, many modes may propagate simultaneously at different wave velocities and dispersions. As a result, the analysis of received signals requires profound theoretical insight, such that even those involved in guided wave research often have different opinions concerning identical received signals. From an educational point of view, moreover, it is very difficult to explain guided wave propagation to students and operators of guided wave inspection tools. In such cases, numerical simulation and animations of the calculation results are very effective and helpful. Calculation techniques widely used for such dynamic elastic problems as ultrasonic wave propagation include the finite difference method (FDM), finite element method (FEM) and boundary element method (BEM) (see [7-9]). There are problems, however, with longb calculation times and insufficient computational memory when using these conventional techniques for guided wave calculation. In guided wave inspections, waves propagating over distances 100 or 1000 times the wavelength are normally used. The conventional techniques of FDM, FEM and BEM generally require a minimum of four nodes per wavelength to express the waveform accurately. Thus, to express guided wave propagation in large structures, a large number of nodes in the propagating direction are necessary. Recently, FEM, and general-purpose FEM software, have provided calculation results with sufficient accuracy [10,11]. On the other hand, special methods for guided wave propagation, such as a hybrid technique and semi-analytical FEM (SAFEM), have been developed to avoid long calculation time and memory problems. The hybrid technique, combining theoretical solutions with FEM or BEM, was developed and applied to NDE by Koshiba et al [12], Al-Nassar et al [13] and Cho and Rose [14]. Since normal expansion theory is adopted for intact regions with no irregularities, and FEM or BEM is used only for irregular regions, calculation costs have been largely reduced. SAFEM was developed as a special solution of FEM by Cheung [15,16]. Expressing wave distribution in the longitudinal direction using orthogonal functions allows a reduction to one dimension for all kinds of bar-like structures, including plates and pipes with constant material properties and geometrical structures in the longitudinal direction. SAFEM was applied initially with NDE to obtain dispersion curves for layered plates by Dong and Huang [17], Kausel [18] and Datta et al [19], and then for transient solutions by Liu et al [20, 21] and for guided waves in pipes by Rattanawangcharoen et al [22] and Zhuang et al [23]. The author has studied the hybrid technique and SAFEM for guided wave calculations [24-27]. In particular, SAFEM is applicable to a wide range of structures, from layered plates to bars with arbitrary cross- sections having cracks or curved regions, and in operations ranging from numerical analysis to the simulation of guided wave propagation. This paper introduces calculation results for the propagation of a Lamb wave in a plate and a guided wave in a pipe and in a bar with an arbitrary cross-section. Brief description of SAFEM for guided wave calculations: In SAFEM, the cross-section of a plate, pipe or bar is discretized into small sections as shown in Fig. 1. Instead of dividing the region in the longitudinal direction as with ordinary FEM, the orthogonal function exp(i ξz) is used to express the distribution of the displacement field in the longitudinal direction. Similar to ordinary FEM, the virtual work principle, or minimization of potential energy in the entire volume of an object, rewrites the governing equations into an integral form. Discretizing the integral form then gives an eigensystem with respect to the wave numberξat a certain frequency. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors obtained from the eigensystem correspond to wave numbers and wave structures of resonant guided wave modes in the bar-like object, where "wave structure" means the displacement distribution on the cross- section. Phase velocity dispersion curves can be drawn by obtaining the wave numbers (ξ) at frequency steps. Then for given boundary conditions, displacement fields can be calculated as a summation of guided wave modes. Wave propagation can be simulated by collecting these displacement data for all frequency steps in the frequency bandwidth. Since SAFEM can handle only bar-like structures with constant material properties in the longitudinal direction, some SAFEM regions and a FEM region must be combined to calculate guided wave propagation in a bar-like object having irregularities such as cracks and curved regions.el em e n t r z θ (a) Plate (b) Pipe (c) Rail Fig.1 Sub-discritization in the semi-analytical finite element method for guided wave calculation Lamb wave propagation: Calculating a Lamb wave propagation is a two-dimensional plane strain problem, so the theoretical and modeling treatment is easier than with three-dimensional problems such as guided wave in pipes and bars with arbitrary cross-sections. Using Lamb wave animations, two major characteristics commonly seen in guided waves, multi-mode and dispersion, are detailed. Fig. 2 gives snapshots of an animation showing excitation for both A0 and S0 modes at the left edge of a plate. These modes are generated when a normal point force is applied to the upper surface in the frequency range shown in the dispersion curves. The A0 and S0 modes generate simultaneously at the source point and then separate as they travel due to a difference in group velocity. In this case, the S0 mode with higher group velocity travels faster with longitudinal vibration, and the A0 mode travels more slowly with flexural vibration. Fig. 3 shows S0 mode propagation in the highly dispersive frequency region. The S0 mode is excited by applying normal forces on both surfaces of the plate in opposite directions. Because the S0 mode velocities vary with frequency, Fig. 3 shows dispersion characteristics for the S0 mode. In this case, the higher frequency components of the S0 mode wave travel more slowly, and the lower frequency components travel more quickly. As a result, a wave disturbance zone widens as the wave travels. In the frequency region shown in Figs. 2 and 3, only the A0 and S0 modes can propagate. If a higher frequency is used, however, higher modes with a more complex displacement distribution can be excited. Fig. 2 Multi-mode propagation in a plate. Fig. 3 Dispersive S0 mode propagation A large number of theoretical studies have been presented on Lamb wave propagation in an intact plate. However, in order to analyze the interaction of Lamb waves with defects in a plate, a modeling technique is required. With SAFEM, a defect model for guided wave calculations can be developed by connecting some SAFEM regions through continuities of displacements and stresses at the boundaries. Fig. 4 shows reflections and mode conversions at a square notch in a plate when an A0 mode is excited. In Fig. 4 (a), an A0 mode propagates toward the notch, and then in Fig. 4 (b) a first reflection and transmission can be seen at the front wall. The transmitted wave propagates toward the rear step in the defect region and then separates again as a reflected wave and a transmitted wave at the rear step. Because such a reflection and transmission are repeated in a square notch, multiple reflections can be seen [24]. If the wavelength is as long as the width of the notch, two wave packets cannot be distinguished in the received signals, but resonance by the two walls can be seen in the frequency spectrum of the received signals. The multiple reflections from the two edges have been widely confirmed experimentally for notch type defects, and this serves as a guideline for obtaining the length of a defect in the longitudinal direction. (a) A0 mode incidence (b) The first reflection from the front wall (c) The second reflected wave (d) Multiple reflections and transmitted wave at the rear step Fig. 4 Multiple reflection at a square notch in a plate Guided wave in a pipe: Calculating guided wave propagation in a pipe is a three-dimensional problem requiring more calculation time and memory than for Lamb wave calculations. The author has developed a simulation technique with SAFEM for guided waves in a pipe using an orthogonal function exp(in θ) in the circumferential direction, or the symmetry in the two-dimensional descretization model shown in Fig. 1 (b) [25-27]. Fig. 5 shows axisymmetric L(0,1) and L(0,2) mode propagation in a 3-inch, schedule 40 pipe (outer diameter = 88 mm, thickness = 5 mm) when axisymmetric loading is applied on the surface of the left edge of the pipe. Grid shift and shading represent the absolute value and real part , respectively, of the complex amplitude at the grid point. Dispersion curves for the L(0,1) and L(0,2) modes are shown by bold lines, and the other non-axisymmetric flexural modes are shown by solid lines. Though it is possible to propagate many modes, only axisymmetric L(0,1) and L(0,2) modes can be excited in the case of axisymmetric loading. From the group velocity dispersion curves, the faster and slower modes are L(0,2) and L(0,1), respectively.(a) t=130 µs (b) t=250 µs Fig.5 Axisymmetric mode propagation in a pipe, with dispersion curves shown. Axisymmetric mode propagation shown in Fig. 5 can be calculated as a two-dimensional problem, but guided wave propagation for partial loadings on the surface of a pipe requires a three-dimensional calculation. Fig. 6 shows guided wave propagation for partial loadings with a 45o aperture line source, instead of 360o, in the same pipe and for the same input signals as for Fig. 5. Assuming the line source is located at z = 0 m (0< θ<45o), the visualization region in Fig. 6 is from z = 0.1 m to z = 1.0 m. Guided wave energy concentrates in the same direction as the line source in the near field from the source as shown Fig. 6 (a), but spreads out toward the other side as it travels, shown in Fig. 6 (b). The guided wave energy can be seen on the side opposite the source when the wave travels near z = 0.6 m, shown in Fig. 6 (c), after which the guided wave propagates with a very complex waveform as shown in Fig. 6 (d). Similar to bulk wave propagation from a transducer, a portion of the guided wave spreads out from transducer width. But a wave in the pipe continues back around the pipe, superimposing in the far field.From the viewpoint of guided wave mode, this can be explained by the superposition of the modes and their velocity difference. In the near field of the source point, partial vibration can be expressed by a superposition of orthogonal modes, including nonpropagating modes. In the far field, however, because the orthogonal modes have different velocities (most of them are nonpropagating modes), the wave structures become very complex. (a) t = 102 µs (b) t = 164 µs (c) t = 252 µs (d) t = 340 µs Fig. 6 Guided wave propagation emitted from a partial line source with a 45o aperture Guided wave simulation of a pipe with an arbitrarily shaped crack can be accomplished with a combination of SAFEM and FEM. Here, FEM is applied only in the region of the crack, while SAFEM is used for the other intact, semi-infinite pipe sections. Now, considering a cracked pipe with axisymmetric torsional loading, the T(0,1) mode is applied at z = 0, and the FEM region between the semi-infinite SAFEM regions is from z = 20 mm to z = 80 mm. The model for the crack is constructed as follows. First, a sphere of 54 mm in diameter is set 50 mm away from the surface of the pipe, as shown in Fig. 7. The sphere is then rotated 45o around the pipe axis. Removing the
region where the sphere has passed, a broad crack is formed as shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 (a). This is unlike the notch model. Fig. 8 shows an animation of wave propagation around the crack in the FEM region, and Fig. 9 shows waves reflected from the crack in the region of z = 0 mm to z = -500 mm. The shadings of the grid lines and surfaces show displacements in the circumferential and thickness directions, respectively. Fig. 8 (b) and (c) are wave propagations at the moment an incident T(0,1) mode arrives at the crack region and after the incident wave passes away, respectively. Large vibration in the thickness direction can be seen in Fig. 8 (c), indicating excitation of flexural modes. Fig. 9 shows snapshots at t = 355 µs. Fig. 9 (a) contains all modes, while Fig. 9 (b), (c) and (d) show, respectively, the T(0,1) axisymmetric torsional mode only, the T(1,1) non-axisymmetric torsional mode, and the F(1,1) flexural mode. While guided wave propagation in Fig. 9 (a) is very complicated due to the many modes, Fig. 9 (b)-(d), in which the guided wave modes are isolated, clearly show the difference in group velocity and dispersion for each mode. The T(0,1) mode in Fig. 9 (b) and the F(1,1) mode in Fig. 9 (d) are the fastest and slowest modes among the three modes, which agrees well with the group velocity dispersion curves. Since this calculation technique can be used for modal analyses and simulation of each mode, an experimental modal extraction technique would be useful for quantitative defect characterizations. Simulation of guided wave propagation in a bar with a complex cross-section: The author derived theoretical dispersion curves for a bar with an arbitrary cross-section using SAFEM and verified the calculation accuracy by comparing experimental results [27]. SAFEM can also be used for guided wave simulation in a bar with an arbitrary cross-section. Fig. 10 shows animation snapshots for the application of 50 kHz tone burst signals to the surface of a railhead in the vertical direction. The animations show guided wave propagation 1 mm to 50 mm away from the source point. Grid shift and shading represent displacement in all directions and in the vertical direction, respectively. Almost all guided wave energy propagates in the railhead, and a very small vibration can be seen at the right edge of the foot. If we input a vertical force on the railhead, the guided waves are largely affected by irregularities and are therefore useful for detecting cracks. z= -500mm FEM region 4 mm SAFEM region Visualizat ion region in Fig.9 Visualizat ion region in Fig.8 SAFEM line loading z= 0mm z= 20mm z= 80mm 50mm 5 45o Fig.7 Pipe with a round-shaped and broad defect (a) t=0 µs (b) t= 215 µs (c) t=305 µs Fig.8 Animations of scattering waves for the defect shown in Fig. 7 (a) Showing the defect, ;(b) With the T(0,1) incident wave dominant, ; (c) With the scattering flexural mode dominatant. The shadings of grid lines and surface show displacement in the circumferential direction and thickness direction, respectively. (a) All modes (b) T(0,1) mode (c) T(1,1) mode (d) F(1,1) mode Fig.9 Animation snapshots at t = 355 µs showing waves reflected from the defect.
(a) t=195µs (b) t=247.5µs (c) t=295µs Fig.10 Guided wave animation in a rail. The point source is located on the upper surface of the railhead. The excitation frequency is 50kHz. Conclusions: A technique for guided wave simulation was developed using the semi-analytical finite element method, and the simulation results were shown through animations. After introducing guided wave animations for plates and pipes as representative works done previously by the author, animations of guided waves scattering from a crack in a pipe were shown. The calculation was established through a combination of SAFEM and FEM. Because reflected waves from a crack are very complicated, animations for single mode propagation were very useful. Also, it was shown that guided wave simulation for a bar with an arbitrary cross-section is possible. References: 1. Long range propagation of Lamb waves in chemical plant pipework, D. N. Alleyne and P. Cawley, Materials Evaluation, Vol.55 (1997) pp. 504-508 2. 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